![]() The working hypothesis of this chapter is that exchange across such borders was undertaken outside a socially binding “sphere”, a situation that was made possible by the existence of different forms of market trade. Kaupang has yielded comprehensive evidence of craft activity and long-distance trade crossing economic, political and ethnic boundaries. This chapter examines the use of silver as a medium of payment in the Early Viking Period. Moreover, new archaeological finds from private metal detecting from recent years indicate that bullion-based trivial transactions seem to have taken place at a large range of littoral farms around the Trondheimsfjorden, and not, as could be expected, only in the most important central farms or a small number of major trading places. By analysing a number of case studies, their locations and resource bases, the partly different functions of these sites within the frames of local and supra-regional exchange networks become obvious. This paper explores the role of these central farms as gateways and nodes between waterscapes and landscapes within an amphibious network, exemplified by matters of trade and exchange. Literary and archaeological sources indicate a high number of central farms situated around the fjord or at waterways leading to it, all of them closely connected by water. ![]() Last updated: April 20, 2023, with most recent annual data available at the time of update.During the Viking Age, the Trondheimsfjorden in Central Norway emerges as a hub of maritime communication and exchange, supported by an advanced ship-building technology which offered excellent conditions for water-bound traffic on both local and supra-regional levels. In 2021, at least 128 countries (including Puerto Rico) generated about 1,808 billion kWh of wind electricity. In 1990, 16 countries generated a total of about 3.6 billion kWh of wind electricity. China has invested heavily in wind energy and is now the world's largest wind electricity generator. Financial and other incentives for wind energy in Europe have resulted in a large expansion of wind energy use there. electricity generation from wind energy has grown from less than 1% in 1990 to about 10.2% in 2022. These policies and programs have resulted in more wind turbines and more electricity generated from wind energy. In addition, state governments have enacted requirements for electricity generation from renewable sources, and electric power marketers and utilities may offer electricity generated from wind and other renewable energy sources (sometimes called green power) to their customers. The federal government has also provided research and development funding to help reduce the cost of wind turbines and offers tax and investment incentives for wind power projects. federal government and state governments have established financial incentives and requirements to use renewable energy sources in response to a concern for the environment. In the early 1980s, thousands of wind turbines were installed in California, largely because of federal and state policies that encouraged the use of renewable energy sources.īeginning in the 1990s and continuing today, the U.S. federal government supported research and development of large wind turbines. ![]() The oil shortages created an interest in developing ways to use alternative energy sources, such as wind energy, to generate electricity. The oil shortages of the 1970s changed the energy environment for the United States and the world. Source: Stock photography (copyrighted) Wind energy use expanded in the wake of oil shortages and environmental concerns Small wind turbines are becoming more common again, mainly to supply electricity in remote and rural areas. However, some ranches still use wind pumps to supply water for livestock. The number of wind pumps and wind turbines declined as rural electrification programs in the 1930s extended power lines to most farms and ranches across the country. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, small wind-electric generators (wind turbines) were also widely used. Homesteaders and ranchers installed thousands of wind pumps as they settled the western United States. Immigrants from Europe eventually took wind energy technology to the Western Hemisphere.Īmerican colonists used windmills to grind grain, pump water, and cut wood at sawmills. The Dutch developed large windpumps to drain lakes and marshes in the Rhine River Delta. ![]() Merchants and the Crusaders brought wind technology to Europe. By the 11th century, people in the Middle East were using wind pumps and windmills extensively for food production. New ways to use wind energy eventually spread around the world. By 200 BC, simple wind-powered water pumps were used in China, and windmills with woven-reed blades were grinding grain in Persia and the Middle East. People used wind energy to propel boats along the Nile River as early as 5,000 BC. People have been using wind energy for thousands of years ![]()
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